by Aristotle
In his book, Ethica Nicomachea or Nicomachean
Ethics , Aristotle analyses and tries to define the concept of virtue which leads to ευδαιμονία (eudemonia, we use
the Greek word because it means lots more than happiness or welfare).
Eudemonia
is the highest, also the most beautiful and pleasant Good, in the life
of people.
We have a –beautiful like sweet
literature- text of practical philosophy.
It will answer questions like:
·
what is the human life?
·
how can a person become happy?
But let us
follow the thought of Aristotle, as briefly as possible, from the beginning.
He starts analyzing the human
activities and tries to find out if they have any value, because then and only
then can we say that there is value in the human life, as well.
I won’t analyse here the different
kinds of activities he is referring to.
He
concludes that all our activities finally aim at ευδαιμονία (eudemonia) happiness, because we
choose it for what it is and never for the sake of some other “good”.
So, even though, for example, we
choose honour, pleasure, noetic (intellectual) activity and generally every
other virtue, for what they are of course, we also choose them for the sake of ευδαιμονία (happiness),
because we believe that through them, we become happy.
So “ευδαιμονία is the supreme good for
man, it is energy of the soul consistent with virtue,
and if there are more virtues, it is consistent with the best and most perfect of
them” with one more addition, “in a perfect life”.
«Η
ευδαιμονία έστι ψυχής ενέργειά τις κατ’ αρετήν τελείαν».
Therefore
the central part of Aristotle’s ethical theory is:
Virtue is the means to succeed the highest good for man, which is happiness.
But the definition of the word virtue,
was of permanent concern for Aristotle and every time he had a chance he posed
the question about virtue and tried to find a satisfactory answer to it.
The main book, however, where he
discusses and analyses this issue of the definition of virtue that leads to
happiness, is of course Ethica Nicomachea.
He divides the virtues into intellectual
and ethical
ones.
The intellectual
virtues are acquired through teaching;
therefore their
acquisition is a matter of “experience and time”.
They constitute the principal
role of a teacher.
In contrast to them, the
ethical virtues are the outcome of habit.
So it is clear that the acquisition of ethical virtues depends on the person who wants to have them. So none of the
ethical virtues is found in ourselves inherently (since what is inherent, as
for example the physical characteristics, cannot change due to habit).
[Well,
here maybe Darwin some centuries later, would smile questioningly.]
But although the ethical virtues are
not innate in humans, people are endowed with the ability to accept them.
They only have to practice them.
So, Aristotle says, that if
man wants to successfully acquire the perfect virtue which will lead them to
happiness, they have to practice it by habit.
Thus, to acquire a virtue is almost
similar to the learning of a craft:
someone
becomes a craftsman only if he persistently practices his craft.
In the
same way one becomes just or reasonable, (prudent) with practice.
The daily, continuous and incessant
contact with people is what makes us just, as our incessant practice to stay
courageous facing danger, makes us brave.
But we have to be careful, because
this is also the way we become unjust or cowards.
Exactly as we become bad
builders if we practice bad building.
This shows the great importance of the
will, the choice of the individual.
Consequently the virtue and the
badness (evil) are a matter of choice.
Let’s see now how he tries to define
Virtue.
Things that happen in the psyche
(soul), according to Aristotle, are three in number.
passions, dynameis (forces) and
habits.
Aristotle calls passion the desire,
rage, fright, courage, envy, joy, friendship, hatred, lust, jealousy, mercy,
generally “all of them that are followed by pleasure or sorrow”.
What Aristotle calls a “force” is the
capability of man to take part in the passions.
However, nobody is called good or bad due to passions or forces.
We call someone good or bad, Aristotle
says, according to the right or wrong attitude towards the passions.
This means:
If for example we speak about rage, it is wrong,
1) when we rage about something very
strongly, but also when
2) we simply get angry.
What we are aiming at is getting angry
in a moderate way, neither raging strongly nor just getting a little angry.
Something in the middle.
So rage is not wrong from the
beginning.
In the right measure it is a virtue.
What is bad is the extreme rage as well as the insufficient rage.
The question now is “how do we define
or recognize the
middle of the things” (μέσον).
Which of course is neither one nor the same for
everybody.
So the connoisseur avoids the
exaggeration and is looking for “the middle way”.
With this
subjectivity of “the middle of things” which is different for each human,
Aristotle has turned the virtue into a personal matter of each person.
Every human
is looking for their own “middle way” and specifies the way to succeed it.
The habit, a permanent and consistent behavior, does not
only presuppose will, that means the free choice between good and bad, but also the
acceptance of the fact that to acquire virtue is a very difficult task, an
acceptance that eventually provides the individual with the disposition for a
patient persistence on practice.
It’s a difficult thing to be a carrier
of virtue.
“There is one way to be good, thousand
ways to be bad”.
So if you want to think deeply and the
right way, you should avoid the most difficult for you, out of the two. Because
out of the two bad things, -which are the (hyperbole) exaggeration and the
(ellipse) “less”-, the one is a bigger enemy, you know which one.
Since it is so difficult to fight both
enemies, fight first the less strong one, as you have more hope to get rid of it
easier and faster.
The second way to reach the “middle”
is to find out which is your inclination.
Don’t mind
that at times you go towards the exaggeration and some other times you lean
towards “the less”, which means don’t worry when and if you fail in your
attempts to find “the middle way”.
So what leads to the virtue is “the
middle way” and not the exaggeration or “the less”.
But here comes the next question: less
or more than what?
From “δέον» which means: less or more than “what is as it has to
be”.
To get angry, Aristotle goes on, to
desire, to show your fright or courage, to get happy or sad in general,
the right time you have to,
in connection with the things you have
to ,
in connection with the right people,
for the right reason,
in the way you have to,
this is the “middle way” and the
Supreme Good (άριστον).
Aristotle,
a practical man inherently but also a man of theory, didn’t want to just convey
theoretical knowledge to people (like Plato, his teacher), but he also wanted
to provide them with a practical guide for their activities.
For the Greeks of the 5th
century BC, the same for Aristotle himself, the authority that determines what
is right and appropriate in every case and what is not, is the city (πόλις-κράτος).
The city represents the “spirit of the
community”, the city is the unwritten, traditional rules of cohabitation
(symbiosis).
So, it is the city that determines the
things that must be followed to lead to “actions as they have to be” and
consequently lead to (eudemonia) happiness.
A second way to do the right things "the
way you have to", is to follow the virtue which characterized the important men
of the ancestors, who made the city what it was, with their actions and
behavior.
Consequently the
ethical virtue is a political virtue.
Each citizen tried to reach the individual
virtues, so as to be a good citizen, to be worth of the city, and this was the
aim of the Greek citizen.
The virtue as it is conceived by an
ancient Greek, can be seen very clearly in an hymn that Aristotle wrote for a
friend, which I don’t dare to even try to translate, but I will just try to give
the general meaning, which is:
You virtue , even if one dies for you,
this is a sweet, envious death in Greece.
«Αρετή,
πολυβάσανη αγάπη του ανθρώπου,
συ
καμάρι ακριβό της ζωής,
και
να σβήσει για χάρη σου, κόρη, κανείς
είναι
μοίρα γλυκειά, ζηλευτή στην Ελλάδα». (μτφ. Σίμου Μενάρδου)
or in the beautiful language it was written
«Αρετά,
πολύμοχθε γένει βροτείω,
θήραμα
κάλλιστον βίω
σας
πέρι, παρθένε, μορφάς
και
θανείν ζηλωτός εν Ελλάδι πότμος.»
Rethymno, December 2017.
Notes
1. Having read some translations of
Ethica Nicomachea in English, I have seen the different English words that have
been used for some ancient Greek words like ευδαιμονία, αγαθό, αρετή and so on. Here,
which is just a simple, non professional translation for my English speaking
friends, I have used the most recognizable English words.
2. I have also used here, as in the
Greek version of my text, some excerpts from the Introduction, by professor D.
Lypourlis, in his book on Ηθικά Νικομάχεια.